Entrepreneurship and the development of entrepreneurs has received increased attention recently. “Entrepreneurship has emerged over the last three decades as arguably the most potent economic force the world has ever experienced” (Morris, Kuratko, & Cornwall, 2013, p. 1). The economic progress of any region has been markedly changed through the entrepreneur. Valerio, Parton and Robb (2014) argued:
There is a growing interest in the role that entrepreneurship can play as a catalyst to achieve economic and social development objectives, including growth, innovation, employment and equity. Entrepreneurship can manifest within an economy in a number of ways, and it includes both formal and informal economic activities for the purposes of creating wealth. In turn, entrepreneurship can contribute to economic development through high –growth enterprises or, as in the case of necessity-driven entrepreneurship, through enterprises that can serve as an important source of income and employment for vulnerable populations. (p. 1)
Entrepreneurs are able to develop opportunities in ways others cannot. “Entrepreneurs perceive new opportunities and create and grow ventures around such opportunities” (Markley, Mackey, & Luther, 2005). Additionally, entrepreneurs add to the economy in markedly different ways than traditional workers might. There is a strong, positive relationship between the economic growth of a country and a strong level of entrepreneurial activity (Markley et al., 2005). “Greater emphasis on entrepreneurship will also help to encourage graduates to become “job-creators” rather than “job-seekers” (Muir-Leresche, 2013, p. 8). With all of these advantages, it is little wonder that entrepreneurship education programs designed to teach entrepreneurial mindsets and skills were developed to engage rural youth in agriculture.
Youth, aged 15-24, represent a significant and growing portion of the population in rural areas around the globe (Bennell, 2010). Globally, youth account for about1.3 billion people and are expected to peak at 1.5 billion in 2035 (Bennell, 2007). Today, youth account for around onefifth of the population in many developing nations (Proctor & Lucchesi, 2012). By the year 2050, youth are expected to account for 14% of the total global population (FAO, 2014). Africa now has the youngest population in the world with nearly 200 million youth (African Development Bank, 2012).
Rural areas are home to nearly three-fourths of the world’s poor today, but mass outmigration to urban areas is happening across the globe (Bennell, 2010; Cohen, 2006). Rural lands provide much of the world’s food (FAO, 2014). But, “by 2030, demographers predict that around 61% of the world’s population will be living in urban areas” (Cohen, 2006, p. 69). As outmigration trends have persisted and youth have flocked to urban areas, an increased strain has been put on many countries already scarce economic and food resources (Cohen, 2006; FAO, 2014).
Agriculture has been the mainstay of many living in rural areas worldwide and investment in the agricultural sector has been demonstrated to be an effective means to lift groups out of poverty (Bennell, 2010; Diao, Hazell, & Thurlow, 2010). Additionally, agriculture has accounted for 32% of total global employment (ILO, 2014). Unfortunately, the average age of farmers in many nations has risen and, possibly as a result, in some areas farming innovations have decreased. Youth who might otherwise have been employed in agriculture and helped to maintain vibrant rural communities have continued to bypass this vocation and location in lieu of seemingly more lucrative prospects in urban areas (Bennell, 2010).
Youth engagement and interest in agriculture the world over has been low recently and potential entry into agriculture has carried a host of challenges (FAO, 2014). Generally, youth worldwide have lacked motivation to enter and persist in the agricultural industry (FAO, 2014; Sharma, 2007). “Agriculture is not seen as a viable income source and often the youth view agriculture as employment only of last resort and may consider becoming a farmer as condemning oneself to subsistence and poverty” (Muir-Leresche, 2013, p. 8). Even willing youth face barriers to entering agriculture such as insufficient access to knowledge, information and education and limited access to land, financial services, green jobs, markets and engagement in policy dialogue (FAO, 2014). Agriculture seems to carry with it an image of drudgery and the option of last choice; it is often not even considered by youth in the same vein as an actual career (White, 2012).
Entrepreneurship education has risen as a viable platform to reengage rural youth in agriculture and slow rural outmigration. Students of these programs gain entrepreneurial thinking, identify business opportunities, and learn the skills to start a business, helping them see agriculture as a viable livelihood option (Morris et al., 2013). Entrepreneurship education programs focused on secondary education students, often offered through co-curricular and extracurricular platforms, can develop entrepreneurial thinking and skills (Daniel & Kent, 2005; Morris et al., 2013; Valerio et al., 2014). Yet, the characteristics of exemplary entrepreneurship programs are unknown. This worldwide review of innovative programs fills part of the knowledge gap on the phenomenon of rural youth agricultural entrepreneurship programs. This review synthesized primary and secondary historical data, gathered through internet and library searches, to summarize the state of the art in agricultural entrepreneurship education programs for rural youth around the world.
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